Behaviorism
1. Introduction
The school of behaviorism was born with the basic premise that the core subject matter of human psychology is the observed behavior or the various activities of the human being. This position is in contrast to other psychological schools that believed that the key to understanding human psychology lies within the individual’s consciousness and that only through introspection could one access the thoughts, feelings, and emotions that drive behavior. The father of behaviorism is usually considered to be John B. Watson, who in 1913 published an article titled “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” in which he laid out the basic tenets of this new approach to psychological inquiry. However, the ideas and principles that underlie behaviorism can be traced back to earlier thinkers such as William James and Wilhelm Wundt. In this essay, we will trace the origins of behaviorism, explore its theoretical foundations, key concepts and ideas, and Finally, we will examine some of its applications as well as criticisms leveled against it.
2. Origins of behaviorism
As mentioned above, the roots of behaviorism can be traced back to earlier thinkers such as William James and Wilhelm Wundt. James, writing in 1890 in his landmark work The Principles of Psychology, proposed a radical idea that would form the basis for much ofbehaviorist thought: that psychological processes are best understood not in terms of conscious experience but rather in terms of observable behavior. For James, conscious experience was simply a by-product or epiphenomenon of brain activity; it was not itself a cause of behavior. This view ran contrary to the dominant perspective at the time, known as structuralism, which held that consciousness was comprised of basic elements (sensations, feelings, images, etc.) that could be analyzed through introspection. Wundt, meanwhile, founded the first laboratory devoted exclusively to psychological research in 1879 and is generally considered to be the father of experimental psychology. His work also influenced the development of behaviorism; in particular, his focus on creating operational definitions for psychological concepts helped pave the way for subsequent behaviorist researchers to operationalize their own concepts in order to measure them empirically.
The man most responsible for giving birth to behaviorism as a distinct school of thought is John B. Watson. In his 1913 article “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,” Watson laid out several key principles that would come to define behaviorism. First, he argued that psychology should be an objective science focused on measurable behaviors rather than subjective states of consciousness. Second, he claimed that all behaviors are reflexive responses to environmental stimuli and are acquired through classical conditioning (a process we will discuss shortly). Finally, he asserted that emotion is nothing more than a bodily response to environmental stimuli and is therefore best studied through physiological methods rather than introspection. Building on these principles, Watson would go on to conduct several famous experiments demonstrating classical conditioning in humans (most famously with Little Albert) and showing how fear could be induced through Pavlovian conditioning (a process we will also discuss shortly).
3. Theoretical foundations
The theoretical foundations of behaviorism are best understood in contrast to those of other schools of thought within psychology. As we mentioned above, early psychologists such as William James and Wilhelm Wundt were largely concerned with understanding consciousness; for them, observing overt behaviors was not enough to truly understand what was going on inside an individual’s mind. This focus on consciousness would continue with subsequent schools of thought such as psychoanalysis and Gestalt psychology, both of which relied heavily on introspection as a means of understanding mental processes. In contrast, behaviorism eschewed introspection in favor of objective observation of behavior.
This focus on behavior rather than consciousness is attributable to several factors. First, there was a general feeling among behaviorist researchers that consciousness was simply too elusive and subjective to be studied scientifically. As John B. Watson wrote in his 1913 article, “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It”:
The behaviorist…believes that the position of psychology as a science is dependent upon its success in bringing the data of introspection under the control of physical measurements. To introspect is, in the last analysis, to look inwardly and report what one finds there. The report may be more or less veridical, but it is still a matter of individual opinion and is not open to check by others.
In other words, because consciousness is something that can only be experienced by the individual him or herself, it is difficult (if not impossible) to study empirically. Second, behaviorists were influenced by developments in the field of physiology, which at the time was making great strides in understanding how the nervous system and various organs functioned. In particular, they were intrigued by Ivan Pavlov’s work on classical conditioning, which showed how reflexive behaviors could be learned through repeated exposure to environmental stimuli. From this perspective, it made more sense to focus on observable behaviors that could be measured and quantified rather than on internal mental states that could not. Finally, behaviorists were also motivated by a desire to make psychology a true science on par with other natural sciences such as physics and chemistry. In order to do this, they believed that psychology needed to focus on measurable phenomena that could be studied objectively.
4. Key concepts and ideas
There are several key concepts and ideas associated with behaviorism. First and foremost among these is the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning; that is, they are learned through exposure to environmental stimuli. There are two main types of conditioning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally elicits a reflexive unconditioned response (e.g., salivation). After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus will come to elicit the same response even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus; this is known as conditioned response. Operant conditioning, meanwhile, occurs when an animal or person learns to associate a particular behavior with a particular consequence (positive or negative). If the consequence is positive (e.g., receiving food), then the animal or person is likely to repeat the behavior; if the consequence is negative (e.g., getting electric shock), then the animal or person is less likely to repeat the behavior.
Another key concept associated with behaviorism is reinforcement. Reinforcement can be either positive or negative; positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by a pleasant consequence (such as receiving food), while negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by an unpleasant consequence (such as getting electric shock). According tobehaviorists, reinforcement plays an important role in determining which behaviors are likely to be learned and which are not.
Finally, another important idea associated with behaviorism is the concept of habit formation. Habit formation occurs when a behavior becomes so ingrained that it is performed automatically, without any conscious effort on the part of the individual. This process is thought to occur through a process of classical conditioning; that is, repeated exposure to a particular stimulus (such as seeing a candy bar) will eventually lead to the formation of a habit (such as eating the candy bar).
5. Conditioning
As we mentioned above, conditioning is a process by which a behavior is learned through exposure to environmental stimuli. There are two main types of conditioning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally elicits a reflexive unconditioned response (e.g., salivation). After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus will come to elicit the same response even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus; this is known as conditioned response. Operant conditioning, meanwhile, occurs when an animal or person learns to associate a particular behavior with a particular consequence (positive or negative). If the consequence is positive (e.g., receiving food), then the animal or person is likely to repeat the behavior; if the consequence is negative (e.g., getting electric shock), then the animal or person is less likely to repeat the behavior.
6. Reinforcement
Reinforcement can be either positive or negative; positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by a pleasant consequence (such as receiving food), while negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by an unpleasant consequence (such as getting electric shock). According tobehaviorists, reinforcement plays an important role in determining which behaviors are likely to be learned and which are not.
7. Applications of behaviorism
Behaviorism has had a number of applications in different areas of psychology. One area where it has been particularly influential is in the area of child development. Behaviorist theorists such as B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura have conducted extensive research on how children learn through exposure to environmental stimuli such as rewards and punishments. This research has led to a better understanding of how children acquire new skills and how they develop new behaviors over time.
Another area where behaviorism has been applied is in the area of education. Behaviorist principles have been used to develop new methods of teaching and learning that are based on the principle of conditioning. For example, behaviorists have argued that children can be taught more effectively if they are exposed to regular rewards for good behavior (such as praise or stickers). This research has led to the development of new educational methods such as behavioral shaping and reinforcement learning.
Finally, behaviorism has also been applied in the area of mental health. Behaviorist techniques such as exposure therapy and systematic desensitization have been used to treat various disorders such as anxiety and phobias. These techniques are based on the principle of classical conditioning; that is, they involve exposing the individual to the thing they are afraid of (the conditioned stimulus) in a controlled environment until they no longer experience fear or anxiety in response to it (the conditioned response).
8. Criticisms of behaviorism
Behavior